"Our perception is subjective and can be influenced by our biases, beliefs, and experiences. Reality is objective and remains constant regardless of our perceptions. In essence, perception is our own personal lens through which we view the world, while reality is the unchanging truth that lies beneath it."
Table of Contents
1. Introduction
Have you ever made a decision that didn't turn out quite like you expected? Well, it turns out that errors in our thinking, also known as cognitive errors, can be a major influence on decision-making. These cognitive errors can arise from a variety of sources, such as flaws in our perception, heuristics, and biases - all of which are known as cognitive dispositions to respond (CDRs). They can have a big impact on how we process information and make decisions [1, 2].
2. Heuristics - How do they influence our thinking?
Heuristics are mental shortcuts or "rules of thumb" that people use to make decisions, solve problems, or learn new knowledge.
Our brain uses an enormous amount of energy and therefore needs a way to regulate its energy consumption and simplify complex tasks. While heuristics are incredibly effective in achieving this, the downside is that such shortcuts happen unconsciously and can lead to errors and biases in thinking [3, 4, 5].
2.1 Availability Heuristic
We use this heuristic to make judgments about how likely something is to happen based on how easily we can recall examples of it.
For instance, let's say you hear about a plane crash in the news. Even though plane crashes are statistically rare, the availability heuristic can make it seem like they happen more often than they actually do. This is because the recent news about the plane crash makes it easier for us to recall other examples of plane crashes, which can make us overestimate their likelihood [6].
2.2 Representativeness Heuristic
We use this heuristic to make judgments based on how well something matches a stereotype.
For instance, let's say you meet someone who wears glasses and is always reading books. Based on this information, you might assume that this person is a professor. Even though you have no direct evidence to support this assumption, the representativeness heuristic can make it seem like a reasonable guess. However, It's important to remember that people are complex and don't always fit neatly into preconceived categories [7].
2.3 Anchoring and Adjustment Heuristic
We use this heuristic when we make estimates or judgments based on an initial value, or "anchor," and then adjust our estimate based on additional information.
For instance, let's say you're shopping for a car and the initial asking price is much higher than you expected. Even though you know the actual value of the car is lower, the anchoring heuristic can make it difficult to adjust your estimate. Your initial estimate is anchored to the initial asking price, which can make it seem like the actual value is closer to the higher asking price than it really is [8].
3. Biases - How do they influence our thinking?
Cognitive biases are something that we all experience from time to time. They are patterns in our thinking that can lead us to make errors in judgment or decision-making. These biases often happen because our brains try to take shortcuts when processing information, which can sometimes lead to oversimplification or misunderstandings.
While similar sounding, biases and heuristics are not the same. Biases refer to systematic errors in thinking or judgment, while heuristics are mental shortcuts or strategies that people use to make judgments or decisions quickly and efficiently. While heuristics can sometimes lead to biases, they can also be helpful in certain situations [9, 10].
3.1 Confirmation Bias
We use this cognitive bias when we seek out information that confirms our existing beliefs, while ignoring or downplaying information that contradicts them.
For instance, let's say you have a certain political view and you only read news sources that align with that view. Even though other news sources may offer different perspectives or facts, the confirmation bias can make it difficult to give them fair consideration. You may unconsciously dismiss or overlook information that challenges your beliefs, and pay more attention to information that confirms them.
But here's the thing: confirmation bias can prevent us from seeing the full picture and making informed decisions. It's important to challenge our own beliefs and seek out diverse perspectives and information, even if it doesn't immediately align with our existing views [11].
3.2 Fundamental Attribution Error
The fundamental attribution error is when we tend to judge other people's actions based on their personality or character rather than taking into account the situation and context they are in.
For instance, if someone cuts in front of you in line, you might think they are just being selfish, without considering that they could be late for an appointment or didn't notice you were there. It's important to remember that people's behaviour is often influenced by their circumstances, and we should try to understand the situation before jumping to conclusions about their character [12, 13].
3.3 Hindsight Bias
This cognitive bias leads us to believe that we could have predicted an event's outcome, even though we didn't actually have the foresight at the time.
For instance, have you ever looked back at a situation and thought to yourself, "I knew it all along that this would happen!"? From that perspective it is similar to confirmation bias. Hindsight bias can make it challenging for us to learn from our mistakes and make better decisions in the future. It can also cause us to overlook the complexity of a situation and oversimplify it, which can be a problem when it comes to making important decisions.
3.4 Framing Effect
This cognitive bias leads us to make decisions based on how information is presented to us rather than basing it on the quality and accuracy of the information.
If information is presented in a positive light, you are more likely to choose that option than if it's presented in a negative way. Common sense right? However, this may lead to suboptimal decisions. Imagine you're watching a commercial for a new car. The advertiser may use emotional appeals to convince you to buy the car. They may show images of a happy family driving the car on a scenic road, or highlight features that can make you feel secure and comfortable. By appealing to your emotions, the marketer is trying to create a positive association with the car in your mind, making it more likely for you to buy it [14, 15, 16]. However, this emotional "hijack" lets you lose track of all the other important facts that need to be considered in order to make an informed decision.
3.5 Halo and Horn Effect
This specific type of confirmation bias leads us to make judgments about others based on just one characteristic or trait [13].
The first is called the halo effect. This happens when you perceive someone as having positive qualities based on just one positive trait, such as being physically attractive or intelligent. For example, you might assume that someone who is good-looking is also kind and intelligent, even if you don't have any evidence to support this [17].
On the other hand, the horn effect is the opposite and happens when you perceive someone as having negative qualities based on just one negative trait. For example, you might assume that someone who is overweight, is also lazy or unintelligent, even if you don't have any evidence to support this [17].
4. Other perceptive errors that may affect our thinking.
4.1 Norm Perception
Norm perception refers to the way we view what is considered "normal" or "acceptable" behaviour in our communities. Our perception of what is normal and acceptable is influenced by different things like what we see in the media and how the people we hang out with communicate and behave. What we see or hear around us (normative messaging) can affect what we consider to be "normal" behaviour, thereby influencing our thinking and decision making.
We need to be aware that marketing professionals use normative messaging to influence our decision making and behaviour. For instance, tailored normative messaging used in the media has been successful in promoting vaccinations, reducing indoor tanning, and encouraging conservation behaviour [18, 19, 20].
4.2 Placebo Effect
The placebo effect is a phenomenon where a person experiences a perceived improvement in their condition after receiving a treatment that actually has no therapeutic effect.
Let's say you have a headache and you take a pill that you believe is a pain reliever. However, unknown to you, the pill is actually a sugar pill with no active ingredients. After taking the pill, you are starting to feel better and your headache begins to subside. In reality, the sugar pill did not have any real pain-relieving properties, but your belief that it was a pain reliever triggered the placebo effect and your headache improved.
The effect may occur when you are deeply convinced of the benefits a certain treatment may bring, which might be shaped by your past experiences or by what you have observed from other peoples' experiences. The placebo effect can cloud your thinking by making you believe that a treatment is effective when it is not, leading you to overlook or dismiss other potential treatments that may be more effective [21, 22].
4.2 Ethnocentrism
Ethnocentrism is a way of thinking that centers on one's own cultural or ethnic group, and it involves evaluating other cultures based on the standards of one's own culture. It is the belief that one's own culture is natural and correct, while other cultures are incorrect, unnatural, or inferior.
Let's say that you grew up in a culture where it's considered rude to speak loudly in public places. If you were to visit a country where people tend to speak loudly in public, you might perceive their behaviour as impolite or disrespectful, simply because it doesn't align with your own cultural norms.
Ethnocentrism can lead to incorrect assumptions about others' behaviour based on one's own norms, values, and beliefs, and it often leads to a type of cultural bias. In extreme cases, it can lead to prejudice, discrimination, and conflict between different cultural groups [23, 24].
5. How can we reduce such errors in our thinking?
5.1 Metacognition
Metacognition refers to the ability to think about one's own thinking, including knowing what one knows and doesn't know, and how to regulate and control one's thinking.
Let's say you hold a certain belief about a controversial topic. You regularly read news articles and social media posts that confirm your belief and ignore those that challenge it (Confirmation Bias). To overcome your bias, you should take a step back and reflect on your thinking process. You ask yourself questions like:
Am I actively seeking out information that challenges my belief?
Am I considering all perspectives on the topic?
Am I evaluating the credibility of my information sources?
Am I basing my belief on facts or personal biases?
By asking yourself these questions, you become more aware of your thinking and decision-making process. You can then use this information to make adjustments, such as seeking out diverse perspectives, evaluating the credibility of your sources, and considering all available evidence before forming an opinion. This can ultimately lead to more objective and informed decision-making [25].
5.2 De-biasing
De-biasing refers to the process of identifying and reducing cognitive biases that can affect decision-making. De-biasing can involve modifying the person or modifying the environment to mitigate the effects of cognitive biases. Strategies for de-biasing include increasing awareness of biases, using decision-making aids, and using cognitive de-biasing interventions.
Let's say a company is hiring for a new position and the hiring manager has a bias towards candidates who went to a certain university. This bias may cause them to overlook other qualified candidates who did not attend that university.
To de-bias the hiring process, the company could implement several strategies, such as:
Blind resume review: Remove identifying information such as the candidate's name, gender, or university from the resume to minimise the effect of unconscious biases.
Diverse hiring panels: Include a diverse group of individuals in the hiring panel to ensure that multiple perspectives are considered and biases are challenged.
Structured interviews: Use a standardised set of interview questions for all candidates to reduce the influence of personal biases in the interview process.
By implementing these strategies, the hiring process becomes more objective and fair, reducing the impact of biases and increasing the chances of hiring the best candidate for the job [26, 27, 28, 29].
5.3 Lifestyle Factors
While there is no direct evidence that a healthy lifestyle can reduce errors in our thinking, self-care, including reducing and managing stress, maintaining a healthy lifestyle through diet, exercise, adequate sleep, and educating oneself, has been linked to improved mental, physical, end emotional wellbeing.
Therefore, it is possible that a healthy lifestyle may indirectly help reduce thinking errors by improving overall cognitive and emotional functioning [30, 31].
5.4 Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT)
Cognitive Behavioural Therapy (CBT) is a type of psychotherapy that aims to help individuals identify and change unhelpful thought patterns that contribute to their mental health problems.
For example, a study found that, CBT for people at risk of psychosis taught them to be aware of their cognitive biases, to think of alternatives, and to discuss them with someone before acting on their suspicions. This reduced psychotic symptoms significantly [32, 33].
There are alternatives to CBT such as Sensory Disruption of Reconsolidating of conditioned responses therapy (SDR). This therapy focuses on the disruption of conditioned responses [34].
Either way, it is important to seek the opinion of a trained psychologist before commencing any therapies.
6. Final Words of Encouragement
It's important to remember that errors in thinking are a normal part of being human. We all have cognitive biases and make mistakes from time to time and from an evolutionary perspective, some of these features have kept us safe and helped us evolve for thousands of years. The good news is that we can conquer these errors by being aware of them and taking steps to overcome them. By seeking out diverse perspectives and challenging our own beliefs and assumptions, we can become better critical thinkers and decision-makers. So don't be discouraged by any past errors, but instead embrace the opportunity to learn and grow from them. Keep an open mind, stay curious, and never stop learning.
Disclaimer
LÄUFT is not a replacement for professional psychological treatment. If you suffer from severe mental health issues, please contact your Doctor and explore some of the services from our resources page.
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